Kingdoms of Italy


Rome Rome was founded as a city state by the legendary Romulus on 21 April 753 BC. After his death, the region was drawn under Etruscan rule. The Etruscans governed the Italian Peninsula to the north of Rome, and ruled Rome as the southernmost of a chain of semi-independent city states. The Etruscans became dominant from the mid-ninth century BC, and were at the height of their power during the eight to seventh centuries BC.


Latin Kings The Latins are popularly held to have been conquered by Dardanian refugees from the Trojan Wars who fled Troy when the Mycenaean Greeks took it in about 1183 BC. Most of the names are legendary, but in all probability the people actually existed.
fl c.1176 BC	Latinus I		Latin leader of Latium.
fl c.1176 BC	Turnus		Latin leader of the Rutulians. Killed by Aeneas.
fl c.1176 BC	Evander		Latin leader of Pallanteum. His son, Pallas, killed by Turnus.
c.1183 - 1176 BC	Aeneas and his Dardanian followers wander for seven years (travelling via Carthage) before reaching Italy. Welcomed by Latinus, Aeneas fights the first Italian War against Turnus and his allies - most of the other Latin tribes. Aeneas is aided by the Etruscans, and an aged king of Pallanteum (within present-day Rome), named Evander also offers aid to Aeneas, sending a force under the leadership of his son, Pallas. After the war, Aeneas marries the daughter of Latinus, Lavinia, and founds Alba Longa (Lavinium, unlocated by archaeologists), the principal Latin city until the founding of Rome.
c.1176 - ? BC	Aeneas (I)		Allowed to leave Troy by friendly Mycenaean Greeks.
	Ascanius		Son.
	Silvius ('Born in the Woods')		Son. Founded the Silvian line which leads to Rhea Silva.
	Aeneas II Silvius		Son.
	Latinus II Silvius		Son.
	Alba Silvius		Son.
	Atys Silvius		Son.
	Capys Silvius		Son.
	Capetus Silvius		Son.
	Tiberinus Silvius		Son. Drowned in River Albula. River renamed Tiber after him.
	Agrippa Silvius		Son.
	Romulus I Silvius		Son. Struck by lightening.
	Aventinus Silvius		Son. Buried on a hill which was named Aventine after him.
	Proca Silvius		Son.
	Numitor		Son. Has a daughter, Rhea Silva.
	Amulius		Brother. Dethroned Numitor.
	Numitor		Restored by Romulus & Remus.
753 - 716 BC	Romulus		Son of Rhea Silva.
753 BC	Romulus founds the city state of Rome.
716 BC	Rome falls under Etruscan rule. The city of Alba Longa is now secondary to Rome, and is also under the domination of the Etruscan kings of Rome.


Etruscan Kingdom of Rome 716 - 509 BC The Etruscans were the dominant culture in Central and Northern Italy, rising to prominence between circa 850-750 BC. They subdued and dominated the Latin Romans for two centuries.
716 - 672 BC	Numa Pompilius		First Etruscan king.
672 - 640 BC	Tullus Hostilius		Voted king. Fell ill during a plague.
	According to Livy, two dictators rule in the former key Latin city of Alba Longa during the reign of Tullus Hostilius. Gaius Cluilius dies in a war against the Etruscan-led Romans and is succeeded by Mettius Fufetius. He is executed by Tullus Hostilius for treachery.
640 - 616 BC	Ancus Marcius		Grandson of Numa. Built the port of Ostia.
616 - 578 BC	Lucius Tarquinius Priscus		Murdered.
c.600 BC	Tarquinius Priscus drains the swampy area between the Capitoline and Palatine hills. This marketplace expands along with Rome and eventually became the centre of all things political, religious, and commercial in the ancient world.
578 - 534 BC	Servius Tullius		Son-in-law of Lucius. Assassinated by Lucius Superbus.
534 - 509 BC	Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (The Proud)		Last Etruscan king. Died 495 BC.
509 BC	Etruscan rule is thrown out by a Latin insurrection. The Etruscans continue to fight the Latins for some years during the sixth century, but eventually they fade under increasing Latin domination and by the first century BC are almost completely Romanised.


Republic of Rome 509 - 28 BC
509 - 28 BC	Two Consuls are elected each year to govern Rome (with some breaks) alongside the Senate, over which they preside. Dictators (Latin for 'one who dictates' (orders) - also known as the Praetor maximus, the supreme Praetor, or magister populi, master of the people, are elected to temporary office (usually a six month term) during times of emergency.
501 BC	Dictatorship of Titus Larcius		Member of an Etruscan family.
501 BC	Titus Larcius commands against the thirty Latin cities, which have sworn to reinstate Tarquin in Rome.
477 BC	Rome fights the Etruscan city of Veii.
458 BC	Dictatorship of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus		Elected for 16 days to rescue Minucius' trapped army.
439 BC	Dictatorship of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus		Called for a second time from his farm to defend Rome.
428 BC	Rome fights the Etruscan city of Veii again.
406 - 396 BC	Dictatorship of Marcus Furius Camillus		One of five terms as dictator.
396 BC	The Etruscan city of Veii falls to Rome after a ten year seige.
391 - 376 BC	Consuls are replaced by military tribunes. Rome comes under attack from the Celts.
389 BC	Brunnus and the Celts sack Rome, with only the Capitoline Hill standing out against them. The citizens of Rome are forced to pay a thousand pounds in gold to buy off the Celts (a pretty low sum by Roman standards, which perhaps outrages them more than the city being sacked in the first place). Rome afterwards takes steps to ensure the city is never again placed in such a position.
370 - 367 BC	Consuls are replaced by military tribunes.
351 BC	A truce which lasts for forty years is agreed between Rome and Etruscan Tarquinia.
342 BC	Dictatorship of Marcus Valerius Corvus
333 BC	Dictatorship of Publius Cornelius Rufinus
325 - 309 BC	The nearby Marsi people ally themselves with Rome.
324 BC	Dictatorship of Lucius Papirius Cursor
315 BC	Dictatorship of Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus
310 BC	War between Rome and Etruscans allied to the Samnites takes place.
308 BC	Etruscan Tarquinia capitulates.
304 - 90 BC	The Marsi reaffirm their alliance with Rome.
301 BC	Dictatorship of Marcus Valerius Corvus		Second term.
292 BC	Dictatorship of Appius Claudius Caecus
285 BC	Dictatorship of Appius Claudius Caecus
280 BC	Etruscan Vulci falls to Rome.
273 BC	The Romans found their first colony in Etruscan territory.
268 BC	Rome gains the region around modern Rimini.
265 - 264 BC	Volsinies, the last independent Etruscan city, falls to Rome and is destroyed.
264 - 241 BC	The First Punic War erupts between Rome and Carthage. Rome learns how to fight at sea and eventually gains overall victory. Carthage loses Sardinia and the western section of Sicily.
249 BC	Dictatorship of Aulus Atilius Caiatinus		Following the disaster of Drepana.
221? - 219 BC	Dictatorship of Fabius Maximus
218 - 202 BC	The Second Punic War is fought against Carthage. Rome is aided by Etruscan forces, but Italy is invaded by Hannibal Barca and a Roman army is massacred at the Battle of Cannae, killing 60,000. Rome also finds time to fight the First Macedonian War in an attempt to tie down possible Macedonian reinforcements for Carthage. At the end of the war the post of dictator is outlawed, replaced by powers for the two consuls which allows them to take any action to defend the republic.
217 BC	Dictatorship of Fabius Maximus		Nicknamed Cunctator (the Delayer) for his tactics.
203 BC	Dictatorship of Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus
200 - 196 BC	Rome fights the Second Macedonian War, thanks to apparently false claims by Pergamum and Rhodes of a treaty between Macedonian and the Seleucid Empire.
159 BC	Rome conquers the Greek kingdom of Epirus.
149 - 146 BC	The Third Punic War. After a siege which conquers Carthage, Rome takes brutal action to obliterate the city and its people.
146 BC	The Achaean League is dissolved by Rome and Greece is annexed to the Roman province of Macedonia.
133 - 129 BC	Rome is bequeathed the Anatolian kingdom of Pergamum, but has to send two armies in 131 and 129 to secure the claim.
90 - 89 BC	The Marsi fight the Social War against Rome in which Rome's allies fight for, and are eventually granted, citizenship. In 95 and 89 BC Rome secures the independence of Cappadocia in the face of attempted control by Pontus.
89 - 82 BC	Civil War in Italy. Sulla recaptures Rome in 82 BC and ends the war. A new form of dictatorship is created in which there is no time limit for the office.
82 - 79 BC	Dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla		Resigns when Senate is once more in control of Rome.
80 BC	Sulla devastates the Etruscan cities; the Etruscans become Roman citizens.
68 BC	Phoenicia becomes a Roman possession.
64 BC	Lycia becomes a Roman province. The following year, the Seleucids fall to Rome and Syria and areas of Canaan become Roman provinces.
60 - 53 BC	Caesar, Pompey and Crassus		First Triumvirate.
55 - 54 BC	Julius Caesar conducts two 'reconnaissance' expeditions to Britain and encounters fierce resistance, as well as some allies in the various tribes there. A year after his return, in 53 BC, Rome suffers one of the worst defeats in its history when the politician Crassus leads an army to annihilation against the Parthians at Carrhae (Harran)
49 - 46 BC	Civil War between Caesar and Pompey as the former crosses the Rubicon. Caesar wins and is appointed dictator of Rome for ten years.
49 - 44 BC	Dictatorship of Caesar		Assassinated.
45 BC	Caesar is appointed dictator of Rome for life.
44 BC	Julius Caesar is assassinated on the Ides of March in a conspiracy led by Cassius and Brutus. Afterwards, Caesar's consular colleague, Mark Antony, passes a 'lex Antonia' which abolishes the dictatorate and expunges it from the constitutions of the Republic. Antony is forced to share power with Caesar's nephew and adopted son, Octavian, and General Marcus Lepidus, definitely the lesser of the three in terms of power.
43 - 31 BC	Octavian, Antony and Lepidus		Second Triumvirate.
31 - 27 BC	Octavian		In sole control of Rome.
31 - 30 BC	Following Octavian's defeat of Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Egypt becomes a province of Rome upon the death of Cleopatra a year later.
27 BC	The office of dictator is offered to Caesar Augustus (Octavian), who wisely declines it. He opts instead for the power of a tribune and consular imperium without holding any office other than that of Pontifex Maximus and Princeps Senatus - a politic arrangement which leaves him as functional dictator without having to hold the controversial title or office itself. The Empire is born.


Empire of Rome 27 BC - AD 476 While several dates are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire, including the date of Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual dictator (44 BC), the victory of Caesar's heir, Octavian, at the Battle of Actium (2 September 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the honorific Augustus (16 January 27 BC), it is usually the latter that is accepted as a starting point. Some of the names listed here were never accepted as emperors in Rome, often merely leading revolts in some of the provinces and holding regional power for a time. These names are usually backed in a darker shade to separate them. Of course, if they had managed to defeat their opposition then they would have achieved legitimacy, which sometimes was the case. (Additional information taken from The Oxford History of England: Roman Britain, Peter Salway.)

Julian-Claudian Dynasty These five rulers were linked through marriage and adoption into the patrician families of the Julii and Claudii. The reigns of all five were remarkably similar, each expanding the Roman Empire's territory and initiating largescale building projects. All were resented by the senatorial class, despite their popularity with the people, and there was constant plotting to restore the Republic.
27 BC - AD 14	Caesar Augustus (Octavian)		Adopted son of Caesar.
27 BC	Octavian, son of Atia Balba Caesonia, niece of Julius Caesar, ends a century of civil wars and give Rome an era of peace, prosperity, and imperial greatness, known as the Pax Romana, or Roman peace, which lasts for over 200 years.
17 BC	Rome takes Cappadocia as a province.
14 - 37	Tiberius		Adopted son of Octavian. By birth a Claudian.
37 - 41	Gaius (Caligula)		Son of Augustus' adopted grandson. A despot.
41	Early in the year, Caligula's brief reign is ended by a plot engineered by army officers and senators.
41 - 54	Claudius		Uncle. Assassinated by Agrippina, mother of Nero.
43	Rome invades Britannia and begins the conquest of the island.
54 - 68	Nero		Deposed by Senate and suicided to avoid the Roman mob.
54 - 59		Julia Agrippina (Minor)	Mother. Self-appointed regent. Killed on Nero's orders.
66 - 73	The First Jewish Uprising in Judah leads to the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70.
68	Nero's fall from grace death marks the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of emperors.

Soldier Emperors The 'Year of the Four Emperors' witnessed the first time the imperial selection system broke down, as various legions proclaimed their own emperors. The process was started by the Senate voting Galba emperor at the same time as they declared Nero a public enemy. Eventually, the effective Vespasian secured the throne.
68 - 69	Galba		Spanish general who marched on Rome. Murdered.
69	Galba begins his short reign with the execution of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies, but he swiftly demonstrates his lack of ability to wield supreme power and is assassinated.
69	Otho		Popular with the soldiers. Overthrown.
69	Vitellius		Proclaimed on the Rhine. Executed by Vespasian.

Flavians Vespasian was proclaimed emperor by his troops and returned from Judea to take control of Rome. He ended the period of uncertainty in the empire and effectively saved Rome. He authorised the demolition of Nero's fabulous Golden House in the centre of Rome and began construction of its replacement, the Colosseum. Although the period of the Flavians was relatively short, the name proved popular, and was a common component of Roman names for generations.
69 - 79	Vespasian		Roman general in his 60s.
79	Catastrophe hits Southern Italy when Mount Vesuvius explodes with violent strength to bury the cities of Herculanium and Pompeii.
79 - 81	Titus		Son.
81 - 96	Domitian		Brother. Assassinated thanks to his increasing paranoia.
89	Antoninus Saturninus		Usurper army general.
89	Two legions of Domitian's armies in Germania Superior at Mogontiacum (Mainz) revolt under L Antoninus Saturninus, for reasons that are largely lost to history (thanks to the later destruction of Saturninus' personal documents). It is quite plausible that the officers involved rebel against Domitian's rather strict moral policies Whatever goal Saturninus has is completely unknown and there seems to be little indication of a plan. The governor of Germania Inferior puts down the revolt before it seemingly even begins.

Adoptive Emperors The election to the purple of Nerva, an elderly, moderate and capable man, saw the start of the 'five good emperors' golden age. The adoptive emperors are so named because they adopted their successors during their lifetime, ensuring a smooth and peaceful transfer of power upon their deaths. The system collapsed when Marcus Aurelius had to chose between an effective heir and his own unstable son.
96 - 98	Marcus Cocceius Nerva		Adopted Trajan, a commander of the Rhine forces.
98 - 117	Trajan		Increased the empire's borders to their greatest extent.
101 - 106	Trajan fights two Dacian Wars (the area of the Balkans up to Transylvania) in 101-102 and 105-106 as the Dacians are proving to be an obstacle to Roman expansion in that area.
117	He dies on the way back from conquests in Mesopotamia against the Parthians (in which Harran is captured), which the consolidating Hadrian disavows.
117 - 138	Hadrian		An unconventional emperor.
132 - 135	The Second Jewish Uprising in Judah is led by Simon Bar Kochba against Roman rule.
136	Hadrian consolidates the empire's borders. Two years before his death he adopts a consul by the name of L Aelius Caesar to be his successor, but the latter's premature death forces Hadrian to select again. Antoninus Pius has a reputation for honesty and devotion to duty.
138 - 161	Antoninus Pius		Died of fever in Etruria.
140 - 143	Never one to willingly make war, Antoninus is forced to order the reoccupation of the British territories of lowland Scotland and begin construction of the Antonine Wall in order to resolve the problem of barbarian pressure.
161 - 180	Marcus Aurelius		Aurelius and Lucius Verus are the empire's first joint rulers.
161 - 169		Lucius Verus	Died early.
166 - 169	The First Invasion of German peoples across the Danube takes place, penetrating into Italy and forcing Marcus Aurelius to spend the rest of his life campaigning in the Danube region to contain the problem.
175 - 176	Avidius Cassius		Army general.
176	Cassius leads a revolt against Marcus Aurelius in the east, but a campaign against him swiftly ends his ambitions.
177 - 180		Commodus	Son of Marcus Aurelius. Totally unfit to rule Rome.
180	Marcus Aurelius dies while conducting what would have been a final campaign against the most dangerous barbarian tribes across the Danube. As it is, the problem is never fully resolved thereafter, and Rome gains one of the most worthless of emperors.
180 - 192	Commodus		Assassinated by arrangement of the praetorian prefect.

Unassociated Emperors Pertinax was prefect of Rome at Commodus' death and was proclaimed emperor by the praetorian prefect who arranged to have Commodus assassinated. Unfortunately he was a strict disciplinarian whose approach to politics ruffled a lot of feathers and began a period of instability and military mutiny.
193	P Helvius Pertinax		Former governor of Britain and prefect of Rome. Assassinated.
193	The same praetorian prefect who had arranged the murder of Commodus also causes his men to assassinate Pertinax. In perhaps the most cynical act in their history they put the throne up for auction to the highest bidder. At the same time three separate provinces proclaim their own emperors and the seeds are sown for civil war.
193	Didius Julianus		An immensely wealthy senator. Murdered in the palace.
193 - 194	Pescennius Niger		Governor of Syria.
193	Decimus Clodius Albinus		Governor of Britannia.
193	Septimus Severus		Governor of Pannonia.
193	Severus marches on Rome and the praetorians declare for him. Julianus is dispatched only six months after the death of Commodus. Severus, now fully in command, offers Albinus the junior title of Caesar.

Severans Septimus Severus, of North African origin, was proclaimed emperor by his legions in Pannonia at almost the same moment as the military in Syria proclaimed Niger and the troops in Britain proclaimed Albinus. Severus showed Machiavellian shrewdness in his dealings with his rivals, while his eldest son, Caracalla, was ruthless in dispatching any opposition to his own claim to succeeding his father. Both his father-in-law and his brother, Geta, were his vicims.
193 - 211	Septimus Severus		Died 4 February.
193 - 197		Decimus Clodius Albinus	Caesar. Defeated and killed by Severus.
196 - 197	After an attempt to have Albinus assassinated fails, Severus marches on Gaul to meet Albinus' forces. The final battle is a close-run affair, but Albinus does not survive the encounter.
209 - 211	Severus leads a campaign against the Caledonii in person, making his headquarters (and the centre of the Roman Empire for three years) at Eboracum (York), but ill-health means he has to hand control of its day-to-day conduct to Caracalla.
198 - 217		Antoninus (Septimius Bassianus Caracalla)	Son. Became Augustus upon the death of his father.
209 - 212		Antoninus (Publius Septimius Geta)	Brother. Co-emperor. Murdered by Caracalla.
217	Caracalla dies a rather mysterious death while visiting a temple of Luna with only his personal bodyguard, which includes his prefect of the Praetorian guard, Macrinus. Perhaps not coincidentally, Macrinus had recently found his name on one of Caracalla's death lists.

Unassociated Emperors By 11 April 217, Macrinus had proclaimed himself emperor. He was the first man to become so without membership in the senatorial class and was the first emperor of Moorish descent. Macrinus also nominated his son, Diadumenianus, as Caesar (the junior rank) and successor and conferred upon him the name 'Antoninus', so connecting him with the relatively stable reigns of the Antonine emperors.
217 - 218	Macrinus		Of Mauritanian origin.
218		Diadumenianus (Caesar)	Son.
218	Severan family plotting paves the way for the proclamation of one of their own as emperor. Macrinus, deserted by many of his allies, is defeated in battle, flees, and is captured and executed. His son is also later executed.

Severans Macrinus reinforced the notion of the soldiers as the true brokers of power in the third century empire and highlighted the importance of maintaining the support of this vital faction. His reign was followed by another seventeen years of rule under Severan emperors.
218 - 222	Antoninus (Elagabalus)		Son of Caracalla's female cousin.
222 - 235	Severus Alexander		Cousin. Murdered for failing to fight the German tribes.
232 - 233	Just as the newly dominant Sassanid Persians conquer areas of Mesopotamia (including Harran) in 232, the Alemanni make the first of their invasions of the empire in 233.
before 232	Uranius Antoninus		Usurper cited by Zosimus either here or in 253.
before 232	Uranius was apparently active during the reigns of Elagabalus or Alexander Severus. However, it is possible that Zosimus confused this usurper with L Julius Aurelius Sulpicius Severus Uranius Antoninus, who reigned in 253. What happened to him after he staked his claim to the throne is not known, but can be guessed.

Soldier Emperors The murder of Severus Alexander ended the principate system set up by Augustus and began a period of chaos in which usurper after usurper gained and lost the imperial throne as palace plot, mutiny, and murder created a climate that elevated no less than seventeen would-be emperors to the purple.
235 - 238	Maximinus Thrax		A Thracian soldier who rose through the ranks.
235	Maximinus (Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus) is conspicuous for being the first barbarian to wear the imperial purple and the first emperor never to set foot in Rome. During his reign he faces various threats and plots against him, and the year 238 is remarkable as one which has no less than six rival emperors.
238	Gordian I (the Elder)		Proclaimed in Africa. In power for three weeks.
238		Gordian II	Son. Proclaimed co-emperor at the same time as his father.
238	Both Gordians die when the governor of the neighbouring province of Numidia marches against them and kills Gordan II. His father commits suicide upon hearing the news. As the Senate had supported the Gordians, they elect two of their own number to protect them against Maximinus' retribution.
238	Balbinus		Elected by Senate.
238		Pupienus (Maximus)	Elected by Senate.
238 - 244	Gordian III		Elected Caesar by Senate under pressure from Roman mob.
238	Maximinus marches on Rome but his troops, suffering from famine and disease, and bogged down in an unexpected siege of the city, which had closed its gates when they approached, become disaffected. In April the Praetorian guards in Maximinus' camp assassinate him, his son and his chief ministers and place their heads on poles to carry them into Rome. The Senate elects the thirteen year-old Gordian III, grandson of Gordian I, as emperor.
240	Sabinianus		Usurper in Africa. Defeated by the governor of Mauritania.
244 - 249	Marcus Julius Philippus 'the Arab'		Praetorian prefect who may have murdered Gordian.
247 - 249		Phillipius (Casear)	Son of Phillipius the Arab. Murdered at the age of 11.
244 - ?		Priscus	Ruler of the East in Philip's name (Rector Orientis).
248 - 249	Tiberius Claudius Pacatianus		Usurper on Danube frontier. Quickly crushed.
248	Marcus Jotapianus		Usurper in the East. Put down by Priscus.
249?	Marcus Silbannacus		Usurper in Rome in c.249 or 253.
c.249	Sponsianus		Usurper on the Danube frontier. Of dubious existence.
249 - 251	Decius		Proclaimed by Danube legions. Killed at the Battle of Abrittus.
249	Decius marches on Rome and defeats Philip the Arab in battle. Philip's son is murdered in Rome when the news arrives there.
250	Julius Valens Licinianus		Usurper in Rome with Senate backing.
251		Herennius Etruscus	Son of Decius. Co-emperor. Killed at the Battle of Abrittus.
c.250	A group of Franks take advantage of the state of the empire and penetrate as far as Tarragona in modern Spain. They plague this region for about a decade before Roman forces subdue them and expel them from Roman territory.
251	Titus Julius Priscus		Usurper in Macedon with Gothic protection.
251	Hostilianus / Hostilian		Son of Decius. Accepted as Caesar by Gallus. Killed by plague.
251 - 253	Trebonianus Gallus		Governor of Moesia Superior proclaimed by his troops.
251 - 253		Volusianus	Son. Murdered.
253	Marcus Aemelius Aemilianus		Governor of Moesia Spr & Pannonia proclaimed by troops.
253	Upon Aemilianus' approach to Rome, both Gallus and his son are murdered by their own troops.
253?	Marcus Silbannacus		Usurper in Rome in c.249 or 253.
253	Valerian marches on Rome to avenge Gallus and sees Aemilianus assassinated by his own troops rather than offer battle to a more powerful army. The accession of Valerian and his son, Gallienus, as joint emperors marks the end of nearly two decades of chaos at the centre of the empire. It also comes just in time as pressure on the Roman frontiers both in the west and east turn into a series of massive invasions.
253 - 260	Valerian		Defeated & captured by Sassanid Persian Shah in 260.
253 - 260		Gallienus	Son. Joint emperor. Ruled alone from 260.
253 - 254	Uranius Antoninus		Usurper cited by Zosimus either here or before 232.
258	The Alemanni break into Italy in strength, requiring Gallienus (who is administering the west) to meet them and defeat them in battle at Milan.
260 - 268	Gallienus		Murdered in unclear circumstances.
258/260	Ingenuus		Usurper in Pannonia. Died during or after his defeat in battle.
260	Regalianus		Usurper in Pannonia. Defeated.
260	Crisis strikes the weakened empire, with two major splinter states (both backed in pink) forming in the same year. The Rhine frontier collapses completely at around the same time. Postumus is Gallienus' lieutenant on the Rhine who murders the praetorian prefect, Silvanus, and Gallienus' own son Saloninus at Cologne and declares himself emperor. The Roman provinces in Germany, Gaul, Spain, and Britain and their armies support him. For the next thirteen years the whole of the north-western part of the empire is run as an independent but fully Roman state with its own series of emperors, and is called the 'Empire of the Gallic Provinces' (Imperium Galliarum / the Gallic Empire - 260-274). The Palmyrene Empire (260-272) encompasses the Roman provinces of Syria, Palestine, Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor. It is ruled as little more than an expanded kingdom by Queen Zenobia for her infant son Vaballanthus with a capital at Palmyra.
260 - 268	Marcus Cassianus Latinius Postumus		Usurper in Gaul. Murdered while putting down an insurrection.
260 - 273	Zenobia of Palmyra		Usurper in Syria. Defeated, captured, and lived on in Rome.
267 - 273		Vaballanthus	Infant son. Died on the way to Rome.
260	Macrianus Major / the Elder		Elected by the Eastern army. Made his two sons emperors.
260		Balista	Prefect who supported Macrianus.
260 - 261		Macrianus Minor / the Younger	Son.
260 - 261		Quietus	Brother.
261	Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi		Sent by Macrianus to counter Valens. Killed by Valens.
261	Valens		Governor of Achaea. Killed by his own troops.
261	Mussius Aemilianus		Macrianus supporter in Egypt. Killed by a General Theodotus.
260 - 261	Quietus and Balista remain in the East and in Egypt to secure their rule, while Macrianus Major and Minor move to Thrace to counter Gallienus. Both are defeated and killed in battle, while Quietus is killed by Odaenathus of Palmyra. Valens' troops, marching in defence of Gallienus, proclaim their commander emperor, and Piso's troops do the same with their commander. Piso is then killed by Valens, who is later killed by his own troops.
262	Memor		Usurper in North Africa. Prepared to rebel. Killed by Theodotus.
268	Manius Acilius Aureolus		Roman cavalry cmdr. Revolted and supported Postumus.
268 - 270	Claudius II Gothicus		Died of plague in January.
268 - 270	Victorinus		Successor to Postumus in Imperium Galliarum.
270	Quintillus		Brother of Claudius. Seized power. Killed or suicided.
270 - 275	Aurelian		Completed reuniting the empire. Murdered.
270 - 274	Beginning with Aurelian, a series of remarkable soldier emperors commences the process of reunifying and restoring the empire. Aurelian defeats the barbarians who had crossed the Danube and kills the leader of the Goths. This act begins a shift of power amongst the barbarian tribes.
270 - 274	Tetricus		Successor to Victorinus in Imperium Galliarum.
273 - 274		Tetricus II	Son. Caesar. Life (and senatorial rank?) spared by Aurelian.
271	Domitianus		Tried to rule Imperium Galliarum. Killed by Aurelian.
273	Firmus		Usurper in Egypt. Evidence for him is unreliable.
274	The Imperium Galliarum collapses when Aurelian defeats its military power in battle at Ch�lons. Tetricus surrenders and is permitted to pursue a useful and distinguished career in Roman life.
275	Ulpia Severina		Wife of Aurelian. Augusta since 274. Ruled during interregnum.
275 - 276	Marcus Claudius Tacitus		Elected by the Senate. Assassinated.
276	Marcus Annius Florianus		Half brother of Tacitus. Killed for failing to defeat Probus.
276 - 282	Marcus Aurelius Probus		Carried on the Roman recovery. Killed by his troops.
277	Vandals and Burgundians who had crossed the Rhine to invade the empire are defeated by Probus and are resettled in Britannia.
280 or 81	Julius Saturninus		Usurper in Syria. Killed by his own troops.
280 - 281	Proculus		Usurper in Gaul. Betrayed and handed over by Frankish allies.
280		Gallus Quintus Bonosus	Joint usurper. Hanged himself when defeated by Probus.
282 - 283	Marcus Aurelius Carus		Cmdr of Praetorian Gd. Probably died of natural causes.
283 - 284		Carinus (Caesar)	Son. Governed the west. Defeated by Diocletian.
283 - 284		Numerian (Caesar / Augustus)	Brother. Succeeded his father in the east. Died naturally.
283 - 285 or 286	Julianus Sabinus / Julian I		Usurper in Pannonia (possibly two similarly named usurpers).

Tetrarchs Commander of Numerian's personal guard, Diocletian's sudden elevation marked the start of the so-called Late Roman world. Of humble provincial origin in Dalmatia, and originally named Diocles, he was marked as an arch reformer, yet he was also dedicated to Roman tradition. One of his most remarkable reforms was the introduction of the 'Tetrarchy' in 293 when the empire was again under serious strain. Each of the two senior emperors, the 'Augusti', would rule the eastern and western halves of the empire, aided by their own junior 'Caesar'. The system worked as a college of four emperors. When one of the elder two died or retired, his colleague would also retire, the juniors would take their places, and would promote two Caesars of their own. Unfortunately it was not to work for very long.
284 - 305	Diocletian		Britannicus Maximus. Abdicated.
285	Diocletian appoints Maximianus, one of his officers, as his chief lieutenant with the title of Caesar. He also takes the title of Britannicus Maximus, and it seems reasonable to assume that a military success of some importance had been won in his name in Britannia, which lays within Maximianus' command. The following year, Maximianus is promoted to Augustus to act as co-emperor.
286 - 305		Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus	Abdicated.
286 - 287	Carausius, a commander of low birth who had been impressive under Maximianus' command, is suspected of collusion with raiding barbarians. When Maximianus orders his execution he proclaims himself emperor and seizes the provinces of Britannia. In 289 he successfully defeats at least two attempts by Maximianus to dislodge him, revealing a level of weakness within the empire.
287 - 293	Marcus Mausaeus Carausius		Usurper in Britannia.
288 - 292	Gaul and Germany still presents problems to Rome. Maximianus is involved in heavy fighting on the Lower Rhine and also on the Upper Danube. Maximianus returns to take personal command on the Rhine in order to release Constantius for an attack on Britannia.
293	Constantius Chlorus, the western Caesar, retakes important sections of Carausius' Gallic territories and defeats his Frankish allies in Batavia. In Britannia, Allectus assassinates Carausius and assumes command himself.
293 - 305		Galerius	Caesar in the east.
293 - 305		Constantius I Chlorus	Caesar in the west.
293 - 296	Allectus		Usurper in Britannia. Former treasurer to Carausius.
296	Constantius launches a major invasion of Britannia. Constantius' division is delayed by bad weather, but another division, under the praetorian prefect Asclepiodotus, takes advantage of fog to avoid Allectus' ships stationed around the Isle of Wight, and lands near Southampton Water, where they burn their ships as a gesture of defiance and determination. Allectus is forced to retreat from the coast, but is cut off by another of Constantius' divisions and is defeated. Allectus himself is killed in the battle. In the same year, Rome loses its hold on the Upper Euphrates region which includes Harran.
296 - 297	Domitius Domitianus		Usurper in Egypt. Died in December.
297 - 298	Aurelius Achilleus		Possible usurper in Egypt. Could have succeeded Domitius.
303	St George, an officer of the Roman army (believed to have been born in Anatolia), is beheaded on 23 April on Diocletian's orders for refusing to renounce his Christianity. He is in Britannia when he hears that Christians are being persecuted by the pagan emperor, and returns to plead their case. Diocletian, in return, does all he can to persuade George to renounce Christianity, but without success (George becomes the patron saint of England, in place of Edward the Confessor, in the fourteenth century).
305 - 311	Galerius		Became Eastern Augustus upon Diocletian's retirement.
305 - 306	Constantius I Chlorus		Became Western Augustus upon Maximianus' retirement.
305 - 313		Maximinus Daia	Caesar in the east. Augustus from 311.
305 - 307		Flavius Valerius Severus II	Caesar in the west. Killed by Maxentius.
306 - 307	The year 306 heralds the confusing situation of having six emperors. When Constantius Chlorus dies at York in Britannia, Severus is promoted to Augustus by Galerius, while in Britannia the troops raise the popular Constantine. Maxentius, the son of the retired emperor Maximianus, revolts at Rome and Galerius sent Severus to suppress him. Maxentius offers his father co-rule of the empire, and Maximianus accepts, regaining his title of Augustus. Severus' men desert him and Severus flees to Ravenna, later surrendering to Maximianus. When Galerius himself invades Italy in 307 to suppress both Maxentius and his father, Maxentius has Severus killed. Galerian elevates Licinius as his replacement.
306 - 324	Constantine I the Great		Son of Constantius. Elevated by his troops in Eboracum.
306 - 312	Maxentius		Son of Maximianus, Revolted in Rome.
307 - 310	Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus		Restored by Maxentius.
308 - 310	By 308, Maximianus realises that his role is just a cover for Maxentius' real power, and he rebels against his own son, marching upon Rome, but is beaten. Maximianus finds refuge with Constantine in Gaul, where in 310 he briefly declares himself emperor for a third time in rebellion against Constantine. Forgiven, he is later revealed to be plotting an assassination attempt. He commits suicide.
312	Maxentius is attacked by Constantine's army near Rome and defeated, with Maxentius himself drowning in the Tiber during the chaotic retreat of his forces.
308 - 324	Licinius		Western Augustus. Became Eastern Augustus in 313.
308 - 313	Licinius is elevated to emperor of the west by Galerius. In 311, upon Galerius' death, Licinius shares the entire empire with Maximinus Daia. Licinius successfully defends himself from an attack by Maximinus in 313 (the Battle of Tzirallum, 30 April), forcing the latter to flee, eventually, to Tarsus, where he dies. Licinius becomes master of the east, allowing his brother-in-law, Constantine, to rule unrivalled in the west.
313	Constantine confers his favour on the Christian church with the Edict of Milan.
324		Sextus Martinianus	Caesar in the east. Raised by Licinius.
324	Constantine declares war against Licinius again and defeats his army at the Battle of Adrianople (3 July). After withdrawing, Licinius surrenders after the Battle of Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (18 September). He and his former co-emperor Sextus Martinianus are assassinated by Constantine for attempting to raise troops among the barbarians.

Second Flavian Dynasty With all rivals in the former Tetrarchy removed, Constantine was now sole emperor and the second Flavian dynasty began. The immense personality and prestige of Constantine held the whole empire firm in his grip, but his death changed all that. The imperial family witnessed an outbreak of murderous squabbling and for three months there was no Augustus at all, and a major army revolt at Constantinople refused to accept any of the appointments to imperial rank that were proposed other than the sons of Constantine themselves. Eventually three brothers emerged to simultaneously hold the rank of Augustus, but even they squabbled.
324 - 337	Constantine I the Great		Now sole emperor.
325	On the rise in the three centuries following the death of Jesus in Judea, Christians are now in a position of strength, and serious conflict between them and the pagans of the empire arises, threatening to tear it apart. Constantine accepts Christianity as the religion of the empire and convenes the first ecumenical Christian council, confirming the position of the Pope.
330	Constantine dedicates his new capital, Constantinople, formally shifting Roman power away from Rome.
337	Constantine II emerges from the unsettled period following his father's death as the senior Augustus, controlling Britain, Gaul, and Spain - the Gallic Provinces. Constans controls Africa, Italy, and the Illyrian provinces, while Constantius II holds Constantinople and most of the east.
337 - 340	Constantine II		Son. Caesar since aged one month. Senior Augustus.
337 - 361	Constantius II		Brother. Eastern Augustus. Died of fever.
337 - 350	Constans I		Brother. Western Augustus from 340. Killed by Magnentius.
340	Constantine II objects to the attitude of Constans and launches an invasion of Italy. It is disaster: he is defeated and killed at Aquileia.
350		Vetranio (Vetriano)	Caesar. Accepted and then rejected by Constantius.
350 - 353	Magnentius		Usurper in the Imperial Gd units and controlled most of West.
351 - 353	Magnus Decentius		Caesar and probably brother.
353	One of the bloodiest battles in Roman history, Mursa Major in the Balkans, takes place between Magnentius and Constantius in 351, but it is following the former's defeat against Constantius at the Battle of Mons Seleucus in Gaul in 353 that Magnentius commits suicide by falling on his sword. Decentius subsequently hangs himself at Senonae. Constantius conducts a vicious witch hunt of Magnentius' supporters, notably in Britannia.
c.354 - 358	Carausius II		An unverified usurper in Britannia between these dates.
355 - 360		Julian the Apostate	Cousin. Elevated to Caesar by Constantius. A pagan.
355	Claudius Silvanus		Usurper in Gaul. Killed by bribed troops.
358

European Kingdoms

Ancient Italian Peninsula